Crime Victim Studies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Crime Victim Studies - Research Paper Example system effective since it enables the police and court among other factions of the justice system device appropriate ways of handling the victims and punishing the offenders (Acker & Karp, 2001). The relationship between such groups of people as the offenders, the polices, the courts, the media and social movements influences he dispensation of justice, unlike such disciplines as criminology, Victimology concentrates on the humane features that may affect the functionality of justice in a society. The provision of a safe and secure home for battered women is an example of a function of victimology that enhances the satisfaction that such victims obtain rom the legal proceedings. Criminology centers on the determination of guilt in the suspects thus prescribing appropriate punitive justice Victimology on the other hand strives to help the victim recover thus reintegrating them into the society. This way, victimology provides victims with the appropriate mental stability and psychological stability that enables them to move past the humiliating experiences (Lisak, 2004). Such endeavors enhance the justice that victims obtain since they earn back their trust and psychological s tate thus enabling them to become productive members of the society. Houses for battered women are a form of victimology practice began in the 2002 in the United States with the construction of such houses North Virginia. Just as the names suggest, the houses offer female victims of domestic violence a safe and secure shelter. At the institutions, the women received varied psychological counselling that help reintroduce them into the society. The women therefore obtain appropriate life skills that help them better their problem solving abilities and social skills. The services of such homes thus enhance the operations and efficiencies of the justice systems. The women gain the strength to articulate their concerns effectively in courts wing to the counselling they obtain in such facilities. As

Questions in History Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Questions in History - Assignment Example very short period of time because by the end of like four months there was already the use of gas in vans as a form of automatic death with the aid of a senior commander named Herbert Lange (Fulbrook, 2001). In this article, the impacts of the ‘final solution’ have also been discussed i.e. impacts in the academic sector and the cultural effects of the same. The whole issue of brutally murdering the Jews and enclosing them in death camps is unimaginable and disturbed people’s minds such that even psychologists could not understand what could have been happening in the camps. Therefore, this left a great impact on the society because people lived in great fear of what would come next. In the academic sector, there have been many historical publications on dictatorship and such leaders and also on what happened during the killings of the European Jews. Many academic writers have also shown interest in how the Nazi concentration camps rose and also the Second World War; therefore these issues are still being taught in many learning institutions (Fulbrook, 2001). This happened between the years 1980 to 1990 and it tried to cover up the bad impression brought about by Nazism by trying to explain in a humane way. According to the holocaust, the Nazi concentration and death camps still existed just for a simple reason that the present people may remember what was happening in the past and not that they were sites for murder. However, the holocaust has faced much opposition from many historical analysts because they claim that it is difficult to understand such serious issues without the actual survivors. Furthermore, there is no common language that the survivors, if there were any, would use to pass the message whether in written or spoken form. Holocaust research is centred on information acquired from the actual victims of the final solution through video-taped testimonies and written literature (Fulbrook, 2001). The ‘final solution’ was accomplished by

Animal Testing is Wrong Essay Example for Free

Animal Testing is Wrong Essay Animal testing is cruel and inhuman! It is morally wrong to toture animals for our own benefit. Over 3 million animals have been tormented all in the name of research. It has been found that only 5-25% of side effects caused by medicines are accurately predicted. This leads me to wonder what is actually being gained by animal experimentation. It’s bad science! The Food and Drug Administration reported that 92 out of every 100 drugs that pass animal tests fail on humans, making it wasteful. In recent years there has been the recognition that animals rarely serve as good models for the human body. Animal experiments prolong the suffering of people waiting for effective cures by misleading experimenters and squandering precious money, time, and resources that could have been spent on human-relevant research. In the name of science, animal experiments globally are around 100 million experiments each year. Cats, dogs, rabbits, mice and other animals, no different to those we have as pets, are used in experiments. Animals are force-fed harmful substances, infected with lethal viruses, subjected to brain damage, heart attacks, stokes, cancers and ultimately killed. Several cosmetic tests commonly performed on mice, rats, rabbits, and guinea pigs include:skin and eye irritation tests where chemicals are rubbed on shaved skin or dripped into the eyes without any pain relief. repeated force-feeding studies that last weeks or months, to look for signs of general illness or specific health hazards. widely condemned â€Å"lethal dose† tests, where animals are forced to swallow large amounts of a test chemical to determine what dose causes death. The fact that animals are used to study pain, depression, anxiety, and to test pain-killing drugs for human use, demonstrates that scientists recognize that animals are capable of suffering in many ways just like humans, but these sentient animals are unable to give their consent to participate in research. The fact that animals can suffer and experience pain is sufficient reason to refrain on moral grounds from harming them. Beyond pain, there is also persuasive evidence that animals, in particular mammals and birds, have thoughts, intentions, and memories. This means they can be harmed by confinement, frustration, fear, isolation, and loss of life experiences unavoidable for animals confined in Laboratories and used in experiments. The measurement of stress hormones, and presence of ulcers, immune suppression, abnormal behavior and brain dysfunction in laboratory animals, provide further evidence that animals commonly used in labs do suffer pain and distress. Some people claim that because animals do not have duties or responsibilities in the way humans do, they are not deserving of the same protection. However, some humans have no responsibilities or duties, such as babies, the mentally ill, or very infirm, yet they are not stripped of their rights in this way. Indeed, such individuals are usually considered more deserving of protection, not less. Others argue that the potential benefit to human society justifies experiments on animals. However this argument is a slippery slope, as this reasoning would also justify experiments on a few non-consenting humans for the ultimate benefit of human society a clearly unethical scenario. â€Å"If we didn’t use animals, we’d have to test new drugs on people. † The fact is that we already do test new drugs on people. No matter how many animal tests are undertaken, someone will always be the first human to be tested on. Because animal tests are so unreliable, they make those human trials all the more risky. What I have to wonder is why do we test on animals, or feel the need to have people volunteer for something potential dangerous with its unknown side effects when we have child molesters, rapists, and murderers in prison who are catered to three meals a day? I believe we should enact instead of animal testing, (which has been proven to be highly ineffective) testing on convicted criminals on death row, or prisoners looking to cut down some time in exchange for experimentation and observation.

Media Influence on Anorexia in Adolescent Girls

Media Influence on Anorexia in Adolescent Girls Katrina Cooper Table of Contents (Jump to) Rationale Aims and objectives Methodology Context Literature review How are adolescent girls being affected by fashion magazines and the media? Anorexia†¦Encouraged by Pro Anna website? Conclusion Bibliography Rationale A literature review is needed to analyse the reasons there is an increase in adolescent girls developing Anorexia Nervosa. A high number of girls are feeling pressured to diet to manage their weight. Social influences are affecting girls from believing the idea that women in fashion magazines, models and the media have the perfect body. This ideology can cause extreme dieting which can therefore develop into an eating disorder such as anorexia. Adolescent girls are being made to feel insecure about their bodies because of the way in which the media portrays underweight women with the image of the ideal body. Anorexia is a major concern for adolescent girls, with pressures from school, home and peers to remain at a healthy weight. It is difficult for girls to remain in control of their lives and can then lead on to extreme outcomes such as mortality or long term health problems. Aims and objectives To discuss in what ways the media influences girls into the idea of the ‘perfect body shape’. To discuss: Magazines Fashion Social media and internet access (Pro Anna website)   Methodology A literature review on the impact of social influences and the media has on adolescent girls of engaging in extreme dieting which can then lead to an eating disorder such as Anorexia Nervosa. Multiple studies agree that the media has an influence on adolescent girls. However; there is not enough research to declare social influences as the prime cause for young girls for developing anorexia. Numerous studies agree with the media being a cause for concern but research suggests that there are numerous other factors to take into consideration such as biological, developmental, behavioural and sociocultural. It is crucial to consider ethical considerations when taking part in research for a literature review to ensure all the information is accurately interpreted. If the research is not interpreted correctly it can create an unfair literature review. Context Anorexia Nervosa is a mental disorder which starts with an individual dieting and then leads on to unhealthy psychological thoughts about their bodies and weight. This can cause extreme weight loss and the irrational belief that the person is overweight. Individuals diagnosed with Anorexia have obsessive thoughts on restricting food, their calorie intake and food recipes. Studies suggest adolescents are most likely to develop an eating disorder because they struggle to deal with the developmental process that takes place just before or after puberty. Individuals concentrate on becoming thin for their own belief it will help with their personal identity. Studies have found that over the past 50 years there has been an increase in adolescent girls who have developed an eating disorder. The prevalence rate for young girls from ages 15-19 year olds who have developed anorexia nervosa has increased by 0.48%. There’s little information on the reasons adolescent girls have concerns about their weight and body issues. However, many researchers suggest the main reason is the media and the role it plays in portraying an ideal weight regarding pressures on young girls to remain thin. According to York (2012) there was an increase in people being admitted to hospital with an eating disorder. The admissions increased from 16% from the year before resulting in 2,228 in patients being treated for an eating disorder. The most major increase was from 10 to 15 year old girls, the prevalence rate increased from the year before by 69%. Similarly, it was recorded that 1 in 10 of all hospital admissions was girls aged 15 years old. How are adolescent girls being affected by fashion models and the media? Fashion models promote an unhealthy weight, The study of Katzmarzyk and Davis (1978 and 1998) studied models for two decades, results found models decreased their body weight. The study found that 70% of models were underweight, while 75% of women models were less than 85% of their ideal body weight. Similarly, Tiggemann studied 16 year old girls to find out the reasons for young girls concerns on weight and body dissatisfaction. Tiggemann found that the biggest reason that influences girls to lose weight is the media. However, he explained that the 16 year old girls are increasingly aware of the media influences and the self-image portrayal. The media such as magazines, television advertisements, music videos emphasise that female’s appearance is thoroughly important. This encourages adolescents to believe that self-worth is connected with appearance. Underweight fashion models create a negative impact upon themselves by looking unhealthy, stretched and physically disordered. Airbrushing in the media further emphasises impractical unrealistic expectations on young adolescent girls in society. In western society, young girl’s self-esteem deteriorates significantly during the adolescent stage. This increases the risk of young girls being extremely vulnerable and to feel dissatisfied with their weight. A study in the UK analysed 136 participant girls aged 11 to 16 year olds to find out if magazine images of underweight models or average weight models caused insecurities in young girls self-esteem. All of the young girls agreed it did cause insecurities and self-esteem issues. A study has confirmed 50% of young girls read fashion magazines between the ages of 11- 15 year old. Additionally, adolescents are being affected by the media because young girls see fashion models as a body to aspire for and admire them as a role model. This influences young girls to diet; in some cases this could have a negative impact on an adolescent girl and her associatiation with her body. Medical researchers are disturbed how the thin body from fashion models are becoming a stimulant to anorexia in adolescent girls. The fashion models bodies are being used as an influential cultural icon in society and fashion models are dangerously thin. Fashion models have an immense impact on young girls and how they begin to view their bodies in a negative way. The fashion models body creates a risk and danger to young girls because young girls think it is effective to aim to imitate the fashion model. This influences the behaviour habits associated with anorexia such as reducing eating habits and exercising more. Similarly, the university of west of England organised a survey involving 810 young participants. The survey concentrated on the media and images in magazine that promote ‘the perfect body’. Over half of the adolescent girls knew of other girls in their school who presently have body troubles. Apparently 25.4% of young girls compare their bodies to celebrities or people in the media and 35.2% of young girls want to look similar to models in magazines. Half of adolescent girls have been on a diet to lose weight and 15% of young girls would take diet pills if they were willing to lose weight. The age groups for individuals with anorexia In western society, people are taught that diets make them more content in their life. The media sends out messages that to be happy in life you have to be thin and there is comparison between realistic views on the body to thin models, average and underweight celebrities. Society wants individuals to look a certain way and being overweight has become unacceptable in western society. In addition, adolescent girls can attempt suicide because of the psychological effects of trying to achieve the ideal body promoted by fashion models. Recovering from anorexia can be difficult and may produce long term effects. Anorexia can have great effects on a young girls life with long term unemployment, parenting, fertility and relationship problems. It is not uncommon for young girls to be depressed with Anorexia. An individual’s eating disorder can have an impact in all aspects of the young girl’s life, in particular the family. Members of the family may find it difficult to approach and support someone with an eating disorder. Influence of Pro-Anorexia Websites The Pro- anorexia websites started appearing on the internet in 1994 and was initially created for individuals with Anorexia. The websites were used as a forum in which other people with the eating disorder could give online support to one another. However, research suggests individuals with the eating disorder are using the website as a way to stay thin, with groups of individuals encouraging one another to stay thin or lose more weight. There is a great concern for adolescents using anti recovery techniques on the Pro Anna website forum. Almost 49% of young adults internationally have access to the internet, exposing young people to damaging websites. The pro Anna website is described for promoting an eating disorder as a lifestyle choice and not as a medical condition. The content on such websites are influencing and giving adolescents ideas on starving themselves. There is a big concern on adolescents being able to access these websites and medical professionals should be aware of the harmful content on the Pro Anna website. Patients should be advised to seek accurate advice and support if willing to view information from the internet. However, more research is needed to be able to stop adolescents from accessing these dangerous websites. On the other hand, there are some positive roles for the Pro Anna website it can strengthen values for individuals and feel they are able to belong in a group. If the forum is used correctly by people with anorexia nervosa, individuals could share similar experiences, can give one another support and encourage each other to eat. The forum does encourage people with Anorexia to tell family, friends and doctors about their eating disorder. However, individuals on the website suggest that others with anorexia should not reveal too much too families and others as they believe people who do not have the eating disorder do not understand. A study of the Pro Anna websites reported that out of 182 families only 27% of parents discussed the Pro Anna website subject with their children. Similarly, only 52% of parents encountered and were aware of the Pro Anna websites. On the other hand, 35% of patients admitted using the Pro Anna websites, on average for at least 2.8 hours a week, with some patients using the website for up to 20 hours a week. The media has increasingly become aware of the effects of the Pro Anna website and are emphasising the necessary precautions parent should pursue in order to prevent their children from visiting the Pro Anna websites. However, the websites should not be unnecessarily advertised or promoted to children. Children should not be aware of the Pro Anna websites existence as this may cause unnecessary harm. In addition, children should be educated to critically analyse images in the media in case children do come across harmful content while accessing the internet. Conclusion The media has a great impact on adolescent girls from developing anorexia. The media is promoting unhealthily thin models and adolescents witness these images as adolescent girls read magazines regularly. This then causes self-esteem issues because adolescents are at a vulnerable age. It then can lead on to serious weight loss and dramatic outcomes. The age has decreased in adolescent girls at one point it was 16-19 year olds, but now it is affecting 11 to 16 year olds. The concern is high for adolescent girls gaining the opportunity of internet access to damaging websites which could further damage a person’s health. However, more research is needed to determine if social influences are the main cause for adolescent girls developing anorexia. Individuals should be aware there are many other causes other than social influences such as behaviour and biology. There are a number of factors that are necessary to take into consideration when diagnosing an adolescent girl with anore xia nervosa. There is not enough research to use one issue to be the responsibility of the eating disorder. 1

Soldier Suicide as Political Statement Essay -- Politics Army War Essa

Soldier Suicide as Political Statement At least twenty-nine U.S. soldiers stationed in Iraq and Kuwait committed suicide between March 2003 and March 2004. Even the Pentagon considers this an "alarmingly high" suicide rate. It lead the military to commission a morale poll to be completed by Stars & Stripes (August 2003) and to send in a special mental health advisory team to assess the situation. In April 2004, military officials reported the team's conclusion: while the suicide rate for soldiers overseas is almost double that of the civilian population, is not considered a "crisis". (1) Perhaps these suicides tell us more about how the implementation of "democracy" and "freedom" in Iraq is going than we learn from other (government sanctioned) reports. "What might we gain if we considered [suicide], however tentatively, as a kind of an achievement, even... as a kind of gift... not the one we might have wished for, but the one [they give] us when [they do] not have anything to give," writes Peggy Phelan, "A more expansive consideration of suicide might help make an intervention into the usual story of shame, failure, and anguish that all too frequently dominates the relationship of the living with those who kill themselves." (2) Let us listen to the self-inflicted deaths of U.S. soldiers in Iraq as statements of resistance that highlight problems with the United States' "all volunteer" military system. Many soldiers (particularly members of the Reserves and National Guard) are driven to enlist for financial/economic reasons. Faced with limited options, they may have purposefully kept at bay any serious consideration of the possibilities of combat so that they would be able to sign on. These soldier... ...nic dimensions of those inequities. When one considers that for many members of our "volunteer" army, their decision to enlist was made because it was one of their only options for stability, employment, college funding, citizenship... "supporting our troops" takes on different meaning. Soldiers in Iraq who took their own lives are calling out to the wider community to investigate why so many find themselves in a situation where death is their most empowered choice. Works Cited: 1 Statistics compiled from multiple news sources listed in the Media Analysis section that follows. 2 p.6-7, 24, Peggy Phelan, "Francesca Woodman's Photography: Death and the Image One More Time," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society , vol. 27, no. 4, The University of Chicago, 2002. 3 Stanley Aronowitz, "Curb Your Enthusiasm," First of the Month , Winter 2004.

Microsoft Xbox Essay -- essays research papers

Microsoft targets numerous segments of the population of many countries through advertisements of its Xbox. Microsoft, one of the most successful companies in the world, is using its innovations to take over the machine gaming market. Sony and Nintendo have been the gaming powerhouses for many years now, but are now starting to become overshadowed by the success of Microsoft’s Xbox. As long as gaming machines have been available, teenage boys have been the targets of the companies. One new strategy that Microsoft is using is the targeting of all ages and both sexes of consumers. While other companies continue to stay in the young kids and teenage market, Xbox is revolutionizing the target market of gaming systems.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Microsoft is in the process of producing games aimed at young and teenage girls as well as male and female adults. Microsoft is planning to have all types of games available for the Xbox as they are for the computer. As any computer owner knows, a game of any genre can be purchased for the computer. There are tens of thousands of games available for people of all different ages, races, and sexes who all have different interests. Microsoft, unlike the other gaming machine companies, has experience with producing software of this caliber, and is completely prepared for the innovations. With the vast amounts of funds that Microsoft has available, these goals are in no way out of reach.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are already abo...

Basic Principles of Democracy Essay

Democracy comes from the Greek word, â€Å"demos,† meaning people. In democracies, it is the people who hold sovereign power over legislator and government. Democracy is a form of government in which power is held by people under a free electoral system. It is derived from the Greek ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ·ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ±Ãâ€žÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ±, â€Å"popular government†] which was coined from ÃŽ ´ÃŽ ®ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (dÄ“mos), â€Å"people† and ÃŽ ºÃ ÃŽ ¬Ãâ€žÃŽ ¿Ãâ€š (kratos), â€Å"rule, strength† in the middle of the 5th-4th century BC to denote the political systems then existing in some Greek city-states, notably Athens following a popular uprising in 508 BC. In political theory, democracy describes a small number of related forms of government and also a political philosophy. Even though there is no universally accepted definition of ‘democracy’, there are two principles that any definition of democracy includes. The first principle is that all members o f the society have equal access to power and the second one that all the members enjoy universally recognized freedoms and liberties. There are several varieties of democracy some of which provide better representation and more freedoms for their citizens than others. However, if any democracy is not carefully legislated to avoid an uneven distribution of political power with balances such as the separation of powers, then a branch of the system of rule is able to accumulate power in a way that is harmful to democracy itself. The â€Å"majority rule† is often described as a characteristic feature of democracy, but without responsible government it is possible for the rights of a minority to be abused by the â€Å"tyranny of the majority†. An essential process  in representative democracies are competitive elections, that are fair both substantively and procedurally. Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech and freedom of the press are essential so that citizens are informed and able to vote in their personal interests. Popular sovereignty is common but not a universal motivating philosophy for establishing a democracy. In some countries, democracy is based on the philosophical principle of equal rights. Many people use the term â€Å"democracy† as shorthand for liberal democracy, which may include additional elements such as political pluralism, equality before the law, the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances, due process, civil liberties, human rights, and elements of civil society outside the government. In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a supporting attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant philosophy is parliamentary sovereignty (though in practice judicial independence is generally maintained). In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles are also applicable to private organizations and other groups. Though democracy has its origins in Ancient Greece other cultures have significantly contributed to the evolution of democracy such as Ancient India, Ancient Rome, Europe, and North and South America. Democracy has been called the â€Å"last form of government† and has spread considerably across the globe. Suffrage has been expanded in many jurisdictions over time from relatively narrow groups (such as wealthy men of a particular ethnic group), but still remains a controversial issue with regard to disputed territories, areas with significant immigration, and countries that exclude certain demographic groups. The contemporary interpretation of democracy from the political point of view is that it is a system of government in which a country’s political leaders are chosen by the people in regular, free and fair elections. In a democracy, people have a choice between different candidates and parties who want the power to govern. The people can criticize and replace their elected leaders and representatives if they do not perform well. The people are sovereign — they are the highest authority  Ã¢â‚¬â€ and government is based on the will of the people. Elected representatives at the national and local levels must listen to the people and be responsive to their needs. That is why democracy depends upon a literate, knowledgeable citizenry whose access to information enables it to participate as fully as possible in the public life of their society and to criticize unwise or tyrannical government officials or policies. Citizens and their elected representatives recognize that democracy depends upon the widest possible access to uncensored ideas, data, and opinions. All people should have the right to form their own opinions and express them individually or in peaceful assemblies. Free societies cr eate a â€Å"marketplace of ideas† where people exchange their views on any number of issues. Although nuances apply to the world’s various democracies, certain principles and practices distinguish democratic government from other forms of government. †¢ Democracy is government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all citizens, directly or through their freely elected representatives. †¢ Democracy is a set of principles and practices that protect human freedom; it is the institutionalization of freedom. †¢ Democracy rests upon the principles of majority rule, coupled with individual and minority rights. All democracies, while respecting the will of the majority, zealously protect the fundamental rights of individuals and minority groups. †¢ Democracies guard against all-powerful central governments and decentralize government to regional and local levels, understanding that local government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible. †¢ Democracies understand that one of their prime functions is to protect such basic human rights as freedom of speech and religion; the right to equal protection under law; and the opportunity to organize and participate fully in the political, economic, and cultural life of society. †¢ Democracies conduct regular free and fair elections open to all citizens. Elections in a democracy cannot be facades that dictators or a single party hide behind, but authentic competitions for the support of the people. †¢ Democracy subjects governments to the rule of law and ensures that all citizens receive equal protection under the law and that their rights are protected by the legal system. †¢ Democracies are diverse, reflecting each nation’s unique political, social, and cultural life. †¢ Democracies rest upon fundamental principles, not uniform practices. †¢ Citizens in a democracy not only have rights, they have the responsibility to participate in the political system that, in turn, protects their rights and freedoms. †¢ Democratic societies are committed to the values of tolerance, cooperation, and compromise. †¢ Democracies recognize that reaching consensus requires compromise and that it may not always be attainable. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, â€Å"intolerance is itself a form of violence and an obstacle to the growth of a true democratic spirit.† Principles of Democracy People from around the world have identified the basic principles, which must exist in order to have a democratic government. These principles often  become a part of the constitution or bill of rights in a democratic society. Though no two democratic countries are exactly alike, people in democracies support many of the same basic principles and desire the same benefits from their government. The following are examples of the principles referred to as signposts of democracy, which will be used throughout this lesson: 1. Citizen Participation One of the most basic signposts of a democracy is citizen participation in government. Participation is the key role of citizens in democracy. It is not only their right, but it is their duty. Citizen participation may take many forms including standing for election, voting in elections, becoming informed, debating issues, attending community or civic meetings, being members of private voluntary organizations, paying taxes, and even protesting. Participation builds a better democracy. 2. Equality Democratic societies emphasize the principle that all people are equal. Equality means that all individuals are valued equally, have equal opportunities, and may not be discriminated against because of their race, religion, ethnic group, gender or sexual orientation. In a democracy, individuals and groups still maintain their right to have different cultures, personalities, languages and beliefs. 3. Political Tolerance Democratic societies are politically tolerant. This means that while the majority of the people rule in a democracy, the rights of the minority must be protected. People who are not in power must be allowed to organize and speak out. Minorities are sometimes referred to as the opposition because they may have ideas which are different from the majority. Individual citizens must also learn to be tolerant of each other. A democratic society  is often composed of people from different cultures, racial, religious and ethnic groups who have viewpoints different from the majority of the population. A democratic society is enriched by diversity. If the majority deny rights to and destroy their opposition, then they also destroy democracy. One goal of democracy is to make the best possible decision for the society. To achieve this, respect for all people and their points of view is needed. Decisions are more likely to be accepted, even by those who oppose them, if all citizens have been allowed to discuss, debate and question them. 4. Accountability As George Washington said â€Å"Government is not reason, it is not eloquence,it is a force! Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master; never for a moment should it be left to irresponsible action.† In a democracy, elected and appointed officials have to be accountable to the people. They are responsible for their actions. Officials must make decisions and perform their duties according to the will and wishes of the people, not for themselves. Government accountability means that public officials – elected and un-elected – have an obligation to explain their decisions and actions to the citizens. Government accountability is achieved through the use of a variety of mechanisms – political, legal, and administrative – designed to prevent corruption and ensure that public officials remain answerable and accessible to the people they serve. In the absence of such mechanisms, corruption may thrive. The primary political accountability mechanism is free and fair elections. Fixed-terms of office and elections force elected officials to account for their performance and provide opportunities for challengers to offer citizens alternative policy choices. If voters are not satisfied with the performance of an official, they may vote them out of office when their terms expire. The degree to which public officials are politically accountable is a function of whether they occupy an elected versus appointed position, how often they are up for reelection, and how many terms they can serve. Legal accountability mechanisms include the whole legal framework – constitutions, legislative acts, decrees, rules, codes, and other legal instruments that proscribe actions that public officials can  and cannot take and how citizens may take action against those officials whose conduct is considered unsatisfactory. An independent judiciary is an essential requirement for the success of legal accountability, serving as a venue where citizens bring claims against the government. Legal accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ethics statutes and codes of conduct for public officials, outlining unacceptable practices †¢ Conflict of interest and financial disclosure laws, requiring public officials to divulge the source of their income and assets so that citizens may judge whether the actions of those officials are likely to be influenced improperly by financial interests †¢ â€Å"Sunshine† laws, providing the press and the public access to government records and meetings †¢ Citizen participation requirements, dictating that certain government Judicial review, providing courts the power to review the decisions and actions of public officials and agencies. Administrative accountability mechanisms include offices within agencies or ministries and practices within administrative processes designed to ensure that the decisions and actions of public officials account for the interest of the citizens. Administrative accountability mechanisms include: †¢ Ombudsmen, responsible for hearing and addressing citizen complaints; †¢ Independent auditors who scrutinize the use of public funds for signs of misuse; †¢ Administrative courts, that hear citizens’ complaints about agency decisions; †¢ Ethics rules protecting so-called whistleblowers – those within government who speak out about corruption or abuse of official authority – from reprisals. 5. Transparency For government to be accountable the people must be aware of what is happening in the country. This is referred to as transparency in government. A transparent government holds public meetings and allows citizens to attend. In a democracy, the press and the people are able to get information about what decisions are being made, by whom and why. 6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections One way citizens of the country express their will is by electing officials to represent them in government. Democracy insists that these elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed from office in a free and fair manner. Intimidation, corruption and threats to citizens during or before an election are against the principles of democracy. In a democracy, elections are held regularly every so many years. Participation in elections should not be based on a citizen’s wealth. For free and fair elections to occur, most adult citizens should have the right to stand for government office. Additionally, obstacles should not exist which make it difficult for people to vote. Free and fair elections allow people living in a representative democracy to determine the political makeup and future policy direction of their nation’s government. Free and fair elections increase the likelihood of a peaceful transfer of power. They help to ensure that losing candidates will accept the validity of the election’s results and cede power to the new government. Elections alone do not assure democracy since dictators can use the resources of the state to tamper with the election process. Free and fair elections require: †¢ Universal suffrage for all eligible men and women to vote – democracies do not restrict this right from minorities, the disabled, or give it only to those who are literate or who own property. †¢ Freedom to register as a voter or run for public office. †¢ Freedom of speech for candidates and political parties – democracies do not restrict candidates or political parties from criticizing the performance of the incumbent. †¢ Numerous opportunities for the electorate to receive objective information from a free press. †¢ Freedom to assemble for political rallies and campaigns. †¢ Rules that require party representatives to maintain a distance from polling places on election day – election officials, volunteer poll workers, and international monitors may assist voters with the voting  process but not the voting choice. †¢ An impartial or balanced system of conducting elections and verifying election results – trained election officials must either be politically independent or those overseeing elections should be representative of the parties in the election. †¢ Accessible polling places, private voting space, secure ballot boxes, and transparent ballot counting. †¢ Secret ballots – voting by secret ballot ensures that an individual’s choice of party or candidate cannot be used against him or her. †¢ Legal prohibitions against election fraud – enforceable laws must exist to prevent vote tampering (e.g. double counting, ghost voting). †¢ Recount and contestation procedures – legal mechanisms and processes to review election processes must be established to ensure that elections were conducted properly. 7. Economic Freedom People in a democracy must have some form of economic freedom. This means that the government allows some private ownership of property and businesses, and that the people are allowed to choose their own work and labor unions. The role the government should play in the economy is open to debate, but it is generally accepted that free markets should exist in a democracy and the state should not totally control the economy. Some argue that the state should play a stronger role in countries where great inequality of wealth exists due to past discrimination or other unfair practices. 8. Control of the Abuse of Power Democratic societies try to prevent any elected official or group of people from misusing or abusing their power. One of the most common abuses of power is corruption. Corruption occurs when government officials use public funds for their own benefit or exercise power in an illegal manner. Various methods have been used in different countries to protect against these abuses. Frequently the government is structured to limit the powers of the branches of government: to have independent courts and agencies with power to act against any illegal action by an elected official or branch of  government; to allow for citizen participation and elections; and to check for police abuse of power. 9. Accepting the Results of Elections In democratic elections, there are winners and losers. Often the losers in an election believe so strongly that their party or candidate is the best one, that they refuse to accept the results of the election. This is against democratic principles. The consequences of not accepting the result of an election may be a government that is ineffective and cannot make decisions. It may even result in violence which is also against democracy. 10. Human Rights All democracies strive to respect and protect the human rights of citizens. Human rights mean those values that reflect respect for human life and human dignity. Democracy emphasizes the value of every human being. Examples of human rights include freedom of expression, freedom of association, freedom of assembly, the right to equality and the right to education. All human beings are born with inalienable rights. These human rights empower people to pursue lives of dignity – thus, no government can bestow them but all governments should protect them. Freedom, built on a foundation of justice, tolerance, dignity, and respect – regardless of ethnicity, religion, political association, or social standing – allows people to pursue these fundamental rights. Whereas dictatorships deny human rights, free societies continually strive to attain them. Human rights are interdependent and indivisible; they encompass myriad facets of human existence including social, political, and economic issues. Among the most commonly accepted are: †¢ All people should have the right to express their ideas and opinions. †¢ All people should have the right to participate in government. Governments should create laws that protect human rights while justice systems enforce those laws equally among the population. †¢ Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention, and torture – whether one is an opponent of the  ruling political party, an ethnic minority, or even a common criminal – is a basic human right. A professional police force respects all citizens as it enforces the laws of the nation. †¢ In ethnically diverse nations, religious and ethnic minorities should be free to use their language and maintain their traditions without fear of recrimination from the majority population. Governments should recognize the rights of minorities while respecting the will of the majority. †¢ All people should have the opportunity to work, earn a living, and support their families. †¢ Children deserve special protection. They should receive at least an elementary education, proper nutrition, and healthcare. To maintain human rights, citizens in any free society need to be vigilant. Citizen responsibility – through a variety of participatory activities – ensures that government remains accountable to the people. The family of free nations is committed to work toward protection of human rights. They formalize their commitment through a number of international treaties and covenants on human rights. 11. Multi-Party Systems In order to have a multi-party system, more than one political party must participate in elections and play a role in government. A multi-party system allows for opposition to the party, which wins the election. This helps provide the government with different viewpoints on issues. Additionally, a multi-party system provides voters with a choice of candidates, parties and policies to vote for. Historically, when a country only has one party, the result has been a dictatorship. To preserve and protect individual rights and freedoms, a democratic people must work together to shape the government of their choosing. And the principal way of doing that is through political parties. Political parties are voluntary organizations that link the people and their government. Parties recruit candidates and campaign to elect them to public office, and they mobilize people to participate in selecting government leaders. The majority party (or the party elected to control the offices of government) seeks to enact into law a number of different policies and programs. Parties of the opposition are free to criticize the majority party’s policy ideas and offer their own proposals. Political  parties provide a way for citizens to hold elected party officials accountable for their actions in government. Democratic political parties have faith in the principles of democracy so that they recognize and respect the authority of the elected government even when their party leaders are not in power. Like any democracy, members of various political parties reflect the diversity of the cultures in which they arise. Some are small and built around a set of political beliefs. Others are organized around economic interests, or shared history. Still others are loose alliances of different citizens who may only come together at election time. All democratic political parties, whether they are small movements or large national coalitions, share the values of compromise and tolerance. They know that only through broad alliances and cooperation with other political parties and organizations can they provide the leadership and common vision that will win the support of the people of the nation. Democratic parties recognize that political views are fluid and changeable, and that consensus can often arise out of the clash of ideas and values in peaceful, free, and public debate. The concept of the loyal opposition is central to any democracy. It means that all sides in political debate – however deep their differences – share the fundamental democratic values of freedom of speech and faith, and equal protection under law. Parties that lose elections step into the role of opposition – confident that the political system will continue to protect their right to organize and speak out. In time, their party will have a chance to campaign again for its ideas, and the votes of the people. In a democracy, the struggle between political parties is not a fight for survival, but a competition to serve the people. 12. The Rule of Law In a democracy no one is above the law, not even a king or an elected President. This is called the rule of law. It means that everyone must obey the law and be held accountable if they violate it. Democracy also insists that the law be equally, fairly and consistently enforced. This is sometimes referred to as â€Å"due process of law.† For much of human history, rulers and law were synonymous – law was simply the will of the ruler. A first step away from such tyranny was the notion of rule by law, including the notion  that even a ruler is under the law and should rule by virtue of legal means. Democracies went further by establishing the rule of law. Although no society or government system is problem-free, rule of law protects fundamental political, social, and economic rights and reminds us that tyranny and lawlessness are not the only alternatives. Rule of law means that no individual, president or private citizen, stands above law. Democratic governments exercise authority by way of law and are themselves subject to law’s constraints. Laws should express the will of the people, not the whims of kings, dictators, military officials, religious leaders, or self-appointed political parties. Citizens in democracies are willing to obey the laws of their society, then, because they are submitting to their own rules and regulations. Justice is best achieved when the laws are established by the very people who must obey them. Under the rule of law, a system of strong, independent courts should have the power and authority, resources, and the prestige to hold government officials, even top leaders, accountable to the nation’s laws and regulations. For this reason, judges should be well trained, professional, independent, and impartial. To serve their necessary role in the legal and political system, judges must be committed to the principles of democracy. The laws of a democracy may have many sources: written constitutions; statutes and regulations; religious and ethical teachings; and cultural traditions and practices. Regardless of origin the law should enshrine certain provisions to protect the rights and freedoms of citizens: Under the requirement of equal protection under the law, the law may not be uniquely applicable to any single individual or group. Citizens must be secure from arbitrary arrest and unreasonable search of their homes or the seizure of their personal property. Citizens charged with crimes are entitled to a speedy and public trial, along with the opportunity to confront and question their accusers. If convicted, they may not be subjected to cruel or unusual punishment. Citizens cannot be forced to testify against themselves. This principle protects citizens from coercion, abuse, or torture and greatly reduces the temptation of police to employ such measures. 13. Bill of Rights Many democratic countries also choose to have a bill of rights to protect people against abuse of power. A bill of rights is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country. When a bill of rights becomes part of a country’s constitution, the courts have the power to enforce these rights. A bill of rights limits the power of government and may also impose duties on individuals and organizations. The role of the Non-governmental Organizations In democracies, ordinary citizens may organize independent groups that serve the needs of the community or nation they live in and complement, supplement, or even challenge the work of the government. Such organizations are often called nongovernmental organizations, or NGOs, because they are not an extension of the government’s offices. NGOs allow citizens to improve their society by advocating, educating, and mobilizing attention around major public issues and monitoring the conduct of government and private enterprise. NGOs enable citizens from different backgrounds to learn to work together and build the skills, relationships, and trust necessary for good government. NGOs serve a great variety of citizen interests. They may act as social service providers, advocates for the environment or for living standards, work standards, or as the catalysts for democratic change. NGOs often represent the interests of those citizens who might otherwise be left out of national policy de bates. They open the public discourse to people of all economic and social classes and to women and minorities. Funding for NGOs may come from individual private donations, private trusts and philanthropies, corporations, religious institutions, international institutions, other NGOs, sales of goods and services, and even governments. Governments and NGOs frequently work as partners. NGOs may provide local and regional expertise and personnel on the ground for implementation of government-funded projects. NGOs may be politically unaffiliated, or they may be based on partisan ideals and seek to advance a particular cause or set of causes in the public interest. In either model the key point is that NGOs should operate under minimal political control of states. NGOs develop local and international programs in virtually all areas that contribute to the promotion of the principles of democracy, including: †¢ Human rights  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ by promoting international standards and monitoring for violations and abuses. †¢ Rule of law – through low-cost or free legal aid, educating all citizens regarding their rights, and advocating for legal reforms. †¢ Women’s participation – by preparing them for political participation and protecting them from socioeconomic discrimination. †¢ Civic education – through education programs focusing on the role of the citizen in a democratic and diverse society. †¢ A free press – by promoting independent media, training journalists, and setting standards for ethical journalism. †¢ Political party development – through election monitoring by trained domestic observers and nonpartisan voter registration drives. †¢ Government accountability †“ by conducting policy analysis and serving as watchdogs over governmental actions. Democracy in the EU â€Å"The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail. â€Å" These are universal values and not the values of the Europeans alone. Many countries in the world are recognising and implementing these values or at least have written them down in one or the other form. In order to obtain the objectives of the Union based on the afore-mentioned values, the European Union needs certain powers conferred in a legal framework. It is foreseen that these powers must be exercised using the Community method and specific instruments within a single institutional framework. But through the implementation of these universal values, the European Union has become already a success story that is making membership to the Union so very attractive to its neighbours and an example for other regions in the world= More citizens in Europe live in countries with competitive elections, political freedoms and respect for human rights than ever before. Part of this success story can be attributed – undeniably – to the process of European integration. Paradoxically, however, the European Union also finds itself increasingly the subject of general cynicism and dissatisfaction among its citizenry. Therefore, a better understanding of democracy has become vital at all levels of government, and in particular regarding the future of the EU itself. Proposals for the further democratisation of EU decision-making can be pieced together from at least the following four different dimensions of choice: Intergovernmental vs Supranational Under intergovernmental approaches, the EU is democratised through the elected institutions of its member states. In the contemporary EU, for example, each member country has to ratify any change to EU Treaties according to the democratic mechanism of its choice, with referendums being used in some cases and national parliamentary votes in others. In addition, most important decisions have to be taken by the Council of Ministers on which all national governments are represented. Even with majority voting, this allows national parliaments scope to influence the development of EU policy and hold their governments responsible for their behaviour at Union level . They can review the negotiating positions of their governments before meetings of the Council of Ministers. They can scrutinise draft legislation, which has to be circulated to each national parliament in its own language at least six weeks before it is voted in the Council. They also have important discretion in deciding how EU acquis is to be transposed into national law, since directives only require member states to achieve certain results, without specifying the methods to be employed. Under supranational approaches, entirely new democratic institutions are established at the European level. They are purpose-made for the EU’s political system, and they operate with at least some consistency across the Union as whole. So, for example, the European Parliament is directly elected by all adult citizens of the EU. Its powers, are directed to making law for the Union as a whole, and at scrutinising, criticising and controlling the overall performance of Commission and Council in their role as the EU’s double-headed executive. In brief, it has the power to: †¢ Approve or reject the member states’ choice of Commission and Commission President †¢ Dismiss the Commission on a double majority (two-thirds of votes cast, provided that those voting for a censure comprise more than half of the Parliament’s membership). The resignation of the Santer Commision in March 1999 undermined the argument that this was unlikely ever to happen. †¢ Reject legislation in some areas (Co-decision) and amend it in others (Cooperation). The increasing use of the former means that the EP approaches bicameral status with the Council in a political system where rule-making is, arguably, the main activity. Even the latter allows the EP to structure the choices that are subsequently available to the Council. As the previous examples imply, the EU currently mixes and matches intergovernmental and supranational approaches to democratic politics. Consensus vs Majoritarian Democracy Majoritarian democracy is where decisions can be taken by a bare majority of the public or its representatives. Its proponents argue that any alternative amounts to minority rule. Consensus democracy is where the aim is to align policies with the preferences of the greatest number of citizens or their representatives, rather than with those of a simple majority. Its defenders argue that any alternative allows minorities to be excluded and is not, therefore, rule by the people as a whole. Amongst examples of consensus democracy are the following: †¢ Supermajoritarian decision-rules: these require decisions to be approved by more than 50 per cent of representatives. At present the EU employs supermajorities twice over, in both the Council and the EP. Majority voting in the Council requires 71 per cent of the weighted votes of member states. Most powers of the EP can only be exercised on an absolute majority of its membership. Given normal rates of absenteeism this effectively means that a majority of around two-thirds is usually needed in the EP, as well as the Council of Ministers. †¢ Federal systems: these parcel decision-making out between layers of government. It is rare for the EU to be the only body with powers in an issue area. It normally shares jurisdiction with national and sub-national authorities with which it has to co-ordinate its activities. †¢ Consociational systems: these guarantee the participation of all main cultural units in the most important decisions of a political system. In the EU, for example, all governments nominate at least one Commissioner; all member states have a seat on the Council and the opportunity to hold its rotating Presidency for a period of six months; both Council and Parliament over-represent smaller member states in a manner that underlines the principle that it is national communities — and not just citizens — that are units of value in the EU’s political system; and even the Governing Council of the European Central Bank works on the principle ‘one national central bank, one vote’. Direct vs Indirect Democracy Direct democracy is where the people itself takes major decisions of government. The alternative is that they only exercise public control indirectly through appointed representatives. As will be seen below, this distinction is mainly relevant to prescriptions for the democratisation of the EU, rather than to its current practice. Strategic vs Communicative Democracy Strategic models of democracy presuppose that actors have clear and fixed views of their interests. The main goal of democratic institutions is then to find the most efficient means of aggregating the preferences of individuals into collective actions, albeit subject to various standards of fairness. Communicative models of democracy hold that preferences also need to be debated within the political system, either because they are not fully formed prior to a process of discussion, or because group action is so very different from individual action, both actually and morally. A big question for the EU is whether it can develop a public sphere that all citizens can access as equals, and through the medium of which all points of view can be debated and compared. Connecting European citizens to one another — and to EU institutions — raises problems of language, media, party systems and the associational structure of society, almost all of which are presently organised to support national forms of democracy, rather than a European equivalent. The future of a strong European Union with 27 member states and more will only be possible if rules are implemented which make decisions more democratic, more transparent and thus more efficient. A good and democratic society in the European context is a society which is open to reforms or is able to become a better society – I.e. an active civil society. The European Civil Society can give a new direction to politics. Politicians will then follow. Only a European Civil Society which is better informed about European values, objectives and challenges will give Europe a new impetus to the further democratic development of Europe.